College Composition and Communication, Vol. 56, No. 2, December 2004

Click here to view the individual articles in this issue at http://www.ncte.org/cccc/ccc/issues/v56-2

Pough, Gwendolyn D. Rev. of Revisiting Racialized Voice: African American Ethos in Language and Literatures by David G. Holmes. CCC 56.2 (2004): 342-46.

Sullivan, Dale. Rev. of Where Writing Begins: A Postmodern Reconstruction by Michael Carter. CCC56.2 (2004): 346-48.

Fox, Helen. Rev. of Language Diversity in the Classroom: From Intention to Practice Geneva Smitherman and Victor Villanueva, eds. CCC 56.2 (2004): 349-351.

Horner, Bruce. Rev. of Tenured Bosses and Disposable Teachers: Writing Instruction in the Managed UniversityMarc Bousquet, Tony Scott, and Leo Parascondola, eds. CCC 56-2(2004): 351-57.

Hollowell, John, Michael P. Clark, and Steven Mailloux, Christine Ross. “Responses to ‘Education Reform and the Limits of Discourse: Rereading Collaborative Revision of a Composition Program’s Textbook’.” CCC 56.2 (2004) 328-34.

No abstract.

No works cited.

Yancey, Kathleen Blake. “Made Not Only in Words: Composition in a New Key.” CCC 56.2 (2004): 297-328.

Abstract

“Made Not Only in Words: Composition in a New Key” is the print version of the multimodal address that former CCCC Chair Kathleen Yancey gave at the 2004 CCCC convention. Discussing the myriad forms and purposes that writing can take today, she asks us to re-examine our beliefs about what writing is and how it should be taught.

Keywords:

ccc56.2 Students Composition Writing Literacy School Circulation Moment Technology Process Public Screen Curriculum Genre Medium ChairsAddress

Works Cited

ADE. “Report of the Undergraduate English Major.” Report of the 2001-2002 ADE Ad Hoc Committee on the English Major. ADE (Fall/Winter 2003): 68-91.

“America’ s Fortunes.” Atlantic Online (January/February 2004) 21 Mar 04 .

Baron, Dennis. “From Pencils to Pixels.” Passions, Pedagogies, and 21st Century Technologies. Ed. Gail Hawisher and Cynthia Selfe. Logan: Utah State UP, 1999. 15-34.

Bartholomae, David. “Freshman English, Composition, and CCCC.” College Communication and Composition 40.1 (1989): 38-50.

Bazerman, Charles, and David Russell, eds. Writing Selves, Writing Societies: Research from Activity Perspectives. Fort Collins, CO: The WAC Clearinghouse and Mind, Culture, and Activity. 1 June 2004 .

Beaufort, Anne. Writing in the Real World: Making the Transition from School to Work. New York: Teachers College P, 1999.

Bolter, Jay David, and Richard Grusin. Remediation: Understanding New Media. Cambridge: MIT P, 2000.

Brandt, Deborah. Literacy in American Lives. New York: Cambridge UP, 2001.

Bridwell-Bowles, Lillian. “Freedom, Form, Function: Varieties of Academic Discourse.” College Communication and Composition 46.1 (1995): 46-61.

Carroll, Lee Ann. Rehearsing New Roles: How College Students Develop as Writers. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 2002.

Chaplin, Miriam T. “Issues, Perspectives, and Possibilities.” College Composition and Communication 39.1 (1988): 52-62.

Chiseri-Strater, Elizabeth. Academic Literacies: The Public and Private Discourse of University Students. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook, 1991.

Connors, Robert. Afterword. Coming of Age: The Advanced Writing Curriculum. Ed. Linda K. Shamoon, Rebecca Moore Howard, Sandra Jamieson, and Robert A. Schwegler. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/ Cook, 2000. 143-49.

Crowley, Sharon. Composition in the University: Historical and Polemical Essays. Pittsburgh: U of Pittsburgh, 1998.

D’Angelo, Frank. “Regaining Our Composure.” College Composition and Communication 31.4 (1980): 420-26.

Daley, Elizabeth. “Expanding the Concept of Literacy.” Educause Review 38.2 (2003): 33-40.

— . “Speaking the Languages of Literacy.” Speech, University of Michigan, April 2003. 9 Aug. 04 .

Davis, Vivian I. “Our Excellence: Where Do We Grow from Here?” College Composition and Communication 30.1 (1979): 26-31.

Deibert, Ronald. Parchment, Printing, and Hypermedia: Communication in World Order Transformation. New York: Columbia UP, 1997.

Ebert, Roger. Review of 21 Grams. Chicago Sun Times (2003) 1 June 2004 .

Emig, Janet. The Composing Processes of Twelfth Graders. Urbana, IL: NCTE, 1971.

Faigley, Lester. “Literacy after the Revolution.” College Composition and Communication 48.1 (1997): 30-43.

— . “Material Literacy and Visual Design.” In Rhetorical Bodies: Toward a Material Rhetoric. Ed. Jack Selzer and Sharon Crowley. Madison: U of Wisconsin P, 1999. 171-201.

Flower, Linda, and John Hayes. “A Cognitive Process Theory of Writing.” College Composition and Communication 32.4 (1981): 365-87.

Flynn, Elizabeth. “Composing as a Woman.” College Composition and Communication 39.4 (1988): 423-35.

Gerber, John C. “The Conference on College Composition and Communication.” College Composition and Communication 1.1 (1950): 12.

Gere, Anne Ruggles. “Kitchen Tables and Rented Rooms: The Extracurriculum of Composition.” CCC 45 (1994): 75-92.

Good, Tina. Personal discussion, 25 April 2003.

Hairston, Maxine. “The Winds of Change: Thomas Kuhn and the Revolution in the Teaching of Writing.” College Composition and Communication 33.1: 76-88.

Halbritter, Scott. “Sound Arguments: Aural Rhetoric in Multimedia Composition.” PhD diss. University of North Carolina, 2004.

Haswell, Richard. Gaining Ground in College: Tales of Development and Interpretation. Dallas, TX: Southern Methodist UP, 1991.

Hawisher, Gail. Personal discussion. Feb 2004.

Heyda, John. “Industrial-Strength Composition and the Impact of Load on Teaching.” More Than 100 Years of Solitude: WPA Work before 1976. Ed. Barbara L’Eppateur and Lisa Mastrangelo. Forthcoming.

Hopkins, Edwin. “Can Good English Composition Be Done under the Current Conditions?” English Journal 1 (1912): 1-8.

Irmscher, William F. “Writing as a Way of Learning and Developing.” College Composition and Communication 30.3 (1979): 240-44.

Johnson-Eilola, Johndan. “Writing about Writing.” Speech, Computers and Writing Town Hall Meeting, 2002, Illinois State University.

Jones, Richard Lloyd. “A View from the Center.” College Composition and Communication 29.1 (1978): 24-29.

Kampfe, Chris, and Kyle Endres. “Vouchers to Change the Way Higher Ed is Funded.” The Rocky Mountain Collegian. 10 May 2004.

Lanham, Richard. The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology, and the Arts. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1993.

Lawrence, David. E-mail to author. April 2004.

Leu, D. J., C. K. Kinzer, J. Coiro, and D. Cammack. “Toward a Theory of New Literacies Emerging from the Internet and Other ICT.” Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading. 5th ed. Ed. R. Ruddel and Norman Unrau. D. E. International Reading Association, 2004. 4 Aug. 2004 (Preprint version) .

Light, Richard J. Making the Most of College: Students Speak Their Minds. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2001.

Lindemann, Erika. “Early Bibliographic Work in Composition Studies.” Profession (2002): 151-58.

Lunsford, Andrea. “Composing Ourselves: Politics, Commitment, and the Teaching of Writing.” College Composition and Communication 41.1 (1990): 71-82.

McCrimmon, Miles. “High School Writing Practices in the Age of Standards: Implications for College Composition.” Forthcoming.

McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. 1964. Cambridge: MIT P, 1994.

Matsuda, Paul. “Process and Post Process: A Discursive History.” Journal of Second Language Writing 12 (2003): 65-83.

Palmquist, Michael. “Review: Made Not Only in Words: Composition in a New Key.” 15 April 2004. Across the Disciplines at the WAC Clearinghouse. 1 June 2004 .

Popken, Randall. “Edwin Hopkins and the Costly Labor of Composition Teaching.” College Composition and Communication 55.4 (2004): 618-42.

Porter, James. “Why Technology Matters to Writing: A Cyberwriter’s Tale.” Computers and Composition 20.3 (2003): 375-94.

Prior, Paul, and Jody Shipka. “Chronotopic Laminations: Tracing the Contours of Literate Activity.” Writing Selves, Writing Societies: Research from Activity Perspectives. Ed. Charles Bazerman and David Russell. Fort Collins, CO: The WAC Clearinghouse, and Mind, Culture, and Activity, 180-238. 1 June 2004 .

Putnam, Robert. Bowling Alone. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000.

Reynolds, Josh. “Writing Process Map.” My English Portfolio. 1 June 2004 .

Rohman, D. Gordon. “Prewriting: The Stage of Discovery in the Writing Process.” College Composition and Communication 16.2 (1965): 106-12.

Rohman, D. Gordon, and Albert O. Wlecke. “Pre-Writing: The Construction and Applications of Models for Concept Formation in Writing.” Cooperative Research Project No. 2174. USOE: Washington, DC.

Royster, Jacqueline Jones. “When the First Voice You Hear Is Not Your Own.” College Composition and Communication 47.1 (1996): 29-40.

Russell, David, and Arturo Yañez. “Big Picture People Rarely Become Historians: Genre Systems and the Contradictions of General Education.” Writing Selves, Writing Societies: Research from Activity Perspectives. Ed. Charles Bazerman and David Russell. Fort Collins, CO: The WAC Clearinghouse, and Mind, Culture, and Activity. 1 June 2004 .

Selfe, Cynthia L. “Technology and Literacy: A Story about the Perils of Not Paying Attention.” College Composition and Communication 50.3 (1999): 411-36.

Shea, Rachel Hartigan. “How We Got Here.” U.S. News and World Report, 9 Aug 2004: 70-73.

Sommers, Nancy, and Laura Saltz. “The Novice as Expert: Writing the Freshman Year.” College Composition and Communication56.1 (2004): 124-49.

Sternglass, Marilyn. Time to Know Them: A Longitudinal Study of Writing and Learning at the College Level. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997.

Tade, George, Gary Tate, and Jim Corder. “For Sale, Lease, or Rent: A Curriculum for an Undergraduate Program in Rhetoric.” <i.College Composition=”” and=”” Communication=”” 26.1 (1975): 20-24.

Trachsel, Mary. Institutionalizing Literacy: The Historical Role of College Entrance Examinations in English. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1992.

Trimbur, John. “Composition and the Circulation of Writing.” College Composition and Communication 52.2 (2000): 188-219.

Vendler, Helen. “The Ocean, the Bird, and the Scholar.” NEH Jefferson Address, 6 May 2004. 9 Aug. 04 .

Watterson, Bill. Sunday Pages 1985-1995: An Exhibition Catalogue. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel Publishing, 2000.

John Wright, ed. New York Times 2004 Almanac. New York: Penguin, 2003.

Wysocki, Anne, and Julia Jasken. “What Should Be an Unforgettable Face.” Computers and Composition 21.1 (2004): 29-49.

Yancey, Kathleen Blake. “Episodes in the Spaces of the Plural Commons: Curriculum, Administration, and Design of Composition in the 21st Century.” Speech, Writing Program Administration, Delaware, 14 July 2004.

—. “Postmodernism, Palimpsest, and Portfolios: Theoretical Issues in the Representation of Student Work.” College Composition and Communication 55.4 (2004): 738-61.

—. Reflection in the Writing Classroom. Logan: Utah State UP, 1998.

—. Teaching Literature as Reflective Practice. Urbana, IL: NCTE, 2004.

Yancey, Kathleen Blake, Teddi Fishman, Morgan Gresham, Michael Neal, and Summer Smith Taylor. “Portraits of Composition: How Postsecondary Writing Gets Taught in the Early TwentyFirst Century.” Forthcoming.

Enoch, Jessica. “Becoming Symbol-Wise: Kenneth Burke’s Pedagogy of Critical Reflection.” CCC 56.2 (2004): 272-296.

Abstract

In this essay, I analyze Kenneth Burke’s Cold War pedagogy and explore the ways it connects to (and complicates) Paulo Freire’s conception of praxis. I argue that Burke’s theory and practice adds a rhetorical nuance to critical reflection and then envision how his 1955 educational concerns gain significance for teachers and scholars today who, like Burke, live in a time “when war is always threatening.”

Keywords:

ccc56.2 KBurke Students Reflection Pedagogy Language Action Education Rhetoric JDewey Practice PFreire Composition

Works Cited

Aronowitz, Stanley, and Henry Giroux. Education Still under Siege. 2nd ed. Westport CT: Bergin & Garvey, 1993.

Benne, Kenneth D. “Toward a Grammar of Educational Motives.” Educational Forum 11.2 (1947): 233-39.

Bertles, Jeannette. Letter to Kenneth Burke. 16 August 1949. Kenneth Burke Papers. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

Brown, Leonard. Letter to Kenneth Burke. 21 March 1940. Kenneth Burke Papers. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

Brown, Stephen G. “Composing the Eco Wars: Toward a Literacy of Resistance,” Journal of Advanced Composition 19.2 (1999): 215-39.

Brubacher, John S. “The Challenge to Philosophize about Education.” Modern Philosophies and Education: The FiftyFourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part 1. Ed. Nelson B. Henry. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1955. 4-16.

—. Introduction. Modern Philosophies and Education: The Fifty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part 1. Ed. Nelson B. Henry. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1955. 1-3.

Burke, Kenneth. Attitudes toward History. 3rd ed. Berkeley: U of California P, 1984.

—. “Dramatism.” International Encyclopedia of Social Science. vol. 7. New York: Macmillan and Free P, 1968. 445-52.

— . A Grammar of Motives. California ed. Berkeley: U of California P, 1969.

—. Language as Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method. Berkeley: U of California P, 1966.

— . Letter to Charlotte Bowman. 3 June 1952. Kenneth Burke Papers. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

—. Letter to Frederick Burkhardt. 22 Jan. 1952. Kenneth Burke Papers. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

—. Letter to C. M. Coffin. 25 April 1950. Kenneth Burke Papers. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

— . Letter to Daniel Fogarty, S.J. 22 Dec. 1956. Kenneth Burke Papers. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

—. Letter to Robert Heilman. 2 June 1952. Kenneth Burke Papers. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

—. Letter to Harold Kaplan. 2 Dec. Kenneth Burke Papers. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

—. Letter to Matthew Josephson. 7 Sept. 1934. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

—. Letter to Lucia Morehead. 6 Oct. 1950. Kenneth Burke Papers. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

—. Letter to F. Champion Ward. 1949. Kenneth Burke Papers. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

—. Letter to Napier Wilt. Mar. 1950. Kenneth Burke Papers. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

—. “Linguistic Approaches to Problems of Education.” Modern Philosophies and Education: The Fifty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part 1. Ed. Nelson B. Henry. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1955. 259-303.

—. “The Philosophy of Literary Form.” Philosophy of Literary Form: Studies in Symbolic Action. 3rd ed. Berkeley: U of California P, 1973. 1-137.

—. “Questions and Answers about the Pentad.” College Composition and Communication 29.4 (1978): 330-35. . A Rhetoric of Motives. California ed. Berkeley: U of California P, 1969.

— . “Rhetoric: Old and New.” Journal of General Education 45 (1951): 202-09.

Cochran, Thomas. Letter to Kenneth Burke. 28 October 1951. Kenneth Burke Papers. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

Dewey, John. School and Society. Ed. Jo Ann Boydston. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1976.

Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New rev. 20th-anniversary ed. Trans. Myra Bergman Ramos. New York: Continuum, 1998.

Freire, Paulo, and Donaldo Macedo. Literacy: Reading the Word and the World. New York: Bergin and Garvey, 1987.

George, Ann, and Jack Selzer. Kenneth Burke in the 1930s: Negotiating the Left. Madison: U of Wisconsin, P. In press.

—. “What Happened at the First American Writers’ Conference?: Kenneth Burke’s ‘Revolutionary Symbolism in America.'” Rhetorical Society Quarterly 33.2 (2003): 47-66.

Giroux, Henry. Border Crossings: Cultural Workers and the Politics of Education. London: Routledge, Chapman, and Hall, 1993.

Greer, Jane. “‘No Smiling Madonna’: Marian Wharton and the Struggle to Construct a Critical Pedagogy for the Working Class, 1914-1917.” College Composition and Communication 51.2 (1999): 248-71.

Hesford, Wendy. Framing Identities: Autobiography and the Politics of Pedagogy. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1999.

Hurlbert, Mark, and Michael Blitz, eds. Composition and Resistance. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1991.

Hutton, J. “Dusty.” Letter to Kenneth Burke. 7 May 1951. Kenneth Burke Papers. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

Irmscher, William. “Kenneth Burke.” Traditions of Inquiry. Ed. John Brereton. New York: Oxford UP, 1985. 105-35.

Jarratt, Susan C. Rereading the Sophists: Classical Rhetoric Refigured. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1991.

Lynch, Dennis, Diana George, and Marilyn Cooper. “Moments of Argument: Agonistic Inquiry and Confrontational Cooperation.” College Composition and Communication 48.1 (1997): 61-85.

Petruzzi, Anthony. “Kairotic Rhetoric in Freire’s Liberatory Pedagogy.” Journal of Advanced Composition 21.2 (2001): 349- 81.

Ronald, Kate, and Hephzibah Roskelly. “Untested Feasibility: Imagining the Pragmatic Possibility of Paulo Freire.” College English 63.5 (2001): 612-32.

Rueckert, William. Kenneth Burke and the Drama of Human Relations. 2nd ed. Berkeley: U of California P, 1982.

Stone, Lynda. “Reconstructing Dewey’s Critical Philosophy: Toward a Literary Pragmatist Criticism.” Critical Theories in Education: Changing Terrains of Knowledge and Politics. Ed. Thomas Popkewitz and Lynn Fendler. New York: Routledge, 1999. 209-28.

Trainor, Jennifer Seibel. “Critical Pedagogy’s ‘Other’: Constructions of Whiteness in Education for Social Change.” College Composition and Communication 53.4 (2002): 631-50.

Trinkaus, Charles E., et al. Letter to Kenneth Burke. 6 Feb. 1944. Kenneth Burke Papers. Paterno Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

Newkirk, Thomas. “The Dogma of Transformation. ” CCC . 56.2 (2004): 251-271.

Abstract

This essay examines the writing done at the University of New Hampshire in the period between 1928 and 1942. It argues that while there was extensive writing from personal experience, this writing did not perform the “turn” where the writer claims a new form of self-understanding. It goes on to suggest that work with this largely observational genre may develop important skills for the young writers.

Keywords:

ccc56.2 Writing Essay Students Experience NewHampshire Transformation Composition

Works Cited

Abrams, M. H. Natural Supernaturalism: Tradition and Revolution in Romantic Literature. New York: Norton, 1971.

Bartholomae, David, and Anthony Petrosky, eds. Ways of Reading, 4th ed. Boston: Bedford Books, 1996.

Beerbohm, Max. “Going Out for a Walk.” The Art of the Personal Essay: An Anthology from the Classical Era to the Present. Ed. Phillip Lopate. New York: Anchor Books, 1994. 237-39.

Berlin, James. “Rhetoric and Ideology in the Writing Class.” College English 50.1 (1988): 477-94.

Brand, Dana. The Spectator and the City in Nineteenth-Century American Literature. Cambridge, England: Cambridge UP, 1991.

Brown, Randall. “Effie.” The Atlantic MonthlyApril 1933: 512.

Cohen, Jessica. “Grade A: The Market for a Yale Woman’s Eggs.” The Atlantic Monthly December 2002: 74-78.

Coles, William E., Jr., and James Vopat, eds. What Makes Writing Good: A Multiperspective. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1985.

Durst, Russel K. Collision Course: Conflict, Negotiation, and Learning in College Composition. Urbana, IL: NCTE, 1999.

Faigley, Lester. “Judging Writing, Judging Selves.” College Composition and Communication 40.4 (1989): 395-412.

France, Alan W. “Assigning Places: The Function of Introductory Composition as a Cultural Discourse.” College English 55.6 (1993): 593-610.

Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1959.

Kitzhaber, Albert. Themes, Theories, and Therapy: The Teaching of Writing in College. New York: McGraw Hill, 1963.

Lopate, Phillip, ed. The Art of the Personal Essay: An Anthology from the Classical Era to the Present. New York: Anchor Books, 1994.

Macrorie, Ken. Uptaught. New York: Hayden, 1970.

Miller, Richard. “The Nervous System.” College English 58.3 (1996): 265-86.

Murray, Donald. Personal interview, 7 January 2003.

Newkirk, Thomas. The Performance of Self in Student Writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann/Boynton Cook, 1997.

“Notes and Comments.” Untitled. New Yorker 30 April 1938: 14.

Ong, Walter J., S. J. “The Writer’s Audience Is Always a Fiction.” PMLA 90.1 (1975): 9-21.

Orwell, George. “Shooting an Elephant.” A Collection of Essays. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1954. 154-62.

Paine, Charles. The Resistant Writer: Rhetoric as Immunity, 1850 to the Present. Albany: SUNY P, 1999.

Percy, Walker. “The Loss of the Creature.” Ways of Reading, 4th ed. Ed. David Bartholomae and Anthony Petrosky. Boston: Bedford Books, 1996. 511-23.

Root, Robert, Jr. E. B. White: The Emergence of the Essayist.Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 1999.

“Self-Analysis.” Atlantic Monthly February 1934: 255-56.

“Talk of the Town.” “Sex.” The New Yorker 15 April 1933: 9.

Waters, John. “Little Old Lady Passes Away.” Current Expression of Fact and Opinion: Practical Types of Expository Writing for College Composition. Ed. Harrison G. Platt, Jr., and Porter G. Perrin. Chicago, Scott Foresman, 1941. 319-21.

Wendell, Barrett. “Themes from Daily Life.” Harvard University Archives, Cambridge, MA.

Duffy, John. “Letters from the Fair City: A Rhetorical Conception of Literacy.” CCC 56.2 (2004) 223-250.

This article suggests that literacy development in immigrant, refugee, and other historically marginalized communities can be understood as a response to rhetorical struggles in contexts of civic life. To illustrate this “rhetorical conception of literacy,” the article examines a collection of anti-immigrant letters published in a Midwestern newspaper between 1985 and 1995 and the responses to these by a group of Southeast Asian Hmong refugee writers. The essay explores the relationships of content, form, language, and audience in the two sets of letters to show how the anti-immigrant rhetoric became the basis for new forms of public writing in the Hmong community.

Keywords:

ccc56.2 Hmong City Wausau Rhetoric Letters Literacy Community Refugees Asian

Works Cited

Archdeacon, Thomas. Becoming American: An Ethnic History. New York: The Free P, 1983.

Bakhtin, M. M. “Discourse in the Novel.” The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin: U of Texas P, 1981.

Barton, David, and Mary Hamilton. “Literacy Practices.” Situated Literacies: Reading and Writing in Context. Ed. David Barton, Mary Hamilton, and Roz Ivanic. London: Routledge, 2000. 7-15.

Beck, Roy. “The Ordeal of Immigration in Wausau.” The Atlantic Monthly (1994): 84-97.

Besnier, Niko. Literacy, Emotion, and Authority. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995.

Bitzer, Lloyd. “Aristotle’s Enthymeme Revisited.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 45 (1959): 399-408.

Brandt, Deborah. Literacy in American Lives. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001.

Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. Berkeley: U California P, 1969.

Chan, Suecheng. Hmong Means Free: Life in Laos and America. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1994.

Charland, Maurice. “Constitutive Rhetoric: The Case of the Peuple Quebecois.” Landmark Essays on Rhetorical Criticism. Ed. Thomas Benson. Davis, CA: Hermagoras Press, 1993. 213-34.

Cintron, Ralph. Angels’ Town: Chero Ways, Gang Life, and Rhetorics of the Everyday. Boston: Beacon, 1997.

Colby, William. “The Hmong and the CIA: A Friendship, Not a Scandal.” Hmong Forum 2 (1991): 25-34.

Corbett, Edward, P.J. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1990.

Duffy, John. “Never Hold a Pencil: Rhetoric and Relations in the Concept of ‘Preliteracy.'” Written Communication 17.2 (2000): 224-57.

Feagin, Joe R. “Old Poison in New Bottles: The Deep Roots of Modern Nativism.” Immigrants Out! The New Nativism and the Anti-Immigrant Impulse in the United States. Ed. Juan F. Perea. New York: New York UP, 1997. 13-43.

Fisher, Walter R. Human Communication as Narration: Toward a Philosophy of Reason, Value, and Action. Columbia: U of South Carolina P, 1989.

Gee, James P. Social Linguistics and Literacies: Ideology in Discourse. London: Falmer P, 1996.

Grognet, Allene Guss. “Integrating Employment Skills in Adult ESL Instruction.” ERIC Q&A. Washington, DC: National Center for ESL Literacy Education, 1997.

Jensen, Robert. Writing Dissent: Taking Radical Ideas from the Margins to the Mainstream. New York: Peter Lang, 2003.

Koltyk, Jo Ann. New Pioneers in the Heartland: Hmong Life in Wisconsin. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1998.

McGee, Michael. “‘The Ideograph’: A Link between Rhetoric and Ideology.” <i.Readings in=” Rhetorical=” Criticism.=” Ed. Carl C. Burgchardt. State College, PA: Strata, 1995. 442-57.

Meier, Matt S., and Ribera, Feliciano. Mexican Americans/American Mexicans: From Conquistadors to Chicanos. Rev. ed. New York: Hill and Wang. 1993.

Nixon, Thomas, and Fran Keenan. “Citizenship Preparation for Adult ESL Learners.” ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: National Center for ESL Literacy Education, 1997.

Reimers, David M. Unwelcome Strangers: American Identity and the Turn against Immigration. New York: Columbia UP, 1998.

Royster, Jacqueline J. Traces of a Stream: Literacy and Social Change among African American Women.Pittsburgh: U of Pittsburgh P, 2000.

Rouse, P. Joy. “We Can Never Remain Silent: The Public Discourse of the NineteenthCentury African-American Press.” Popular Literacy: Studies in Cultural Practices and Poetics. Ed. John Trimbur. Pittsburgh: U Pittsburgh P, 2001. 128-42.

Safer, Morley, 60 Minutes. CBS TV-News Magazine, 16 October 1994.

Scribner, Susan, and Cole, Michael. The Psychology of Literacy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1981.

Seufert, Peggy. “Refugees as English Language Learners: Issues and Concerns.” ERIC Q&A. Washington, DC: National Center for ESL Literacy Education, 1999.

Stotsky, Sandra. “Connecting Writing and Reading to Civic Education.” Educational Leadership 47 (1990): 72-73.

Strand, Paul, and Woodrow Jones, Jr. Indochinese Refugees in America: Problems of Adaptation and Assimilation. Durham, NC: Duke UP, 1985.

Wells, Susan. “Rogue Cops and Health Care: What Do We Want from Public Writing.” CCC 47.3 (1996): 325-41.

Yang, Dao. Hmong at the Turning Point. Minneapolis, MN: Worldbridge Associates, 1993.

Miller, Keith D. “Plymouth Rock Landed on Us: Malcolm X’s Whiteness Theory as a Basis for Alternative Literacy.” CCC 56.2 (2004): 199-222.

Abstract

Using Burkean theory, I claim that Malcolm X brilliantly exposed the rhetoric and epistemology of whiteness as he rejected the African American jeremiad: a dominant form of African American oratory for more than 150 years. Whiteness theory served as the basis for Malcolm X’s alternative literacy, which raises important questions that literacy theorists have yet to consider.

Keywords:

ccc56.2 MalcolmX Whiteness FDouglass MLKing Slavery Promise Equality Literacy Argument AfricanAmerican Identity Rhetoric Racism KBurke

Works Cited

Blassingame, John, ed. Frederick Douglass Papers: Series One: Speeches, Debates, and Interviews. Vol. 1. New Haven: Yale UP, 1979.

Bowers, Detine. “A Place to Stand: African Americans and the First of August Platform.” Southern Communication Journal 60 (Summer 1995): 348-61.

Branch, Taylor. Pillar of Fire. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996.

Branham, Robert. “‘Of Thee I Sing’: Contesting ‘America.'” American Quarterly 48 (1996): 623-52.

Breitman, George, ed. Malcolm X: By Any Means Necessary. New York: Pathfinder, 1970.

—, ed. Malcolm X Speaks. New York: Grove, 1965. 4-17.

Burke, Kenneth. Attitudes toward History. 1937. Berkeley: U of California P, 1984.

—. Permanence and Change. Los Altos, CA: Hermes, 1954.

—. Rhetoric of Motives. Berkeley: U of California P, 1969.

Carson, Clayborne. In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1981.

Carson, Clayborne, Susan Carson, Virginia Shadron, Kieran Taylor, Adrienne Clay, ed. <i.The Papers=” of=” Martin=” Luther=” King=”, Jr.=” Symbol=” of=” the=” Movement:=” January=” 1957-=” December=” 1958.=” Vol.=” 4.=” Berkeley: U of California P, 2000.

Chesebro, James. “Multiculturalism and the Burkean System.” Kenneth Burke and the 21st Century. Ed. Bernard Brock. Albany: State U of New York P, 1999. 167-88.

Clegg, Claude Andrew, III. An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad. New York: St. Martin’s P, 1997.

Collins, Rodnell (with Peter Bailey). Seventh Child: A Family Memoir of Malcolm X. Secaucus, NJ: Birch Lane P, 1998.

Condit, Celeste. “Post-Burke: Transcending the Sub-stance of Dramatism.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 78 (1992): 349-55.

Cone, James. Martin and Malcolm and America. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1991.

—. Speech. University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, March 1999.

Crawford, Marc. “The Ominous Malcolm X Exits from the Muslims.” Reporting Civil Rights: Volume Two. 1964. New York Library of America, 2003. 96-98.

Crogman, William. “The Negro’s Claims.” 1896. Talks for the Times. Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries P, 1971. 172-98.

—. “Thirty-second Anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation.” 1896. Talks for the Times. Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries P, 1971. 313-30.

Douglass, Frederick. “British Influence on the Abolition Movement in America.” Blassingame 215-31.

—. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. 1845. Norton Critical Edition. Ed. William Andrews and William McFeely. New York: Norton, 1997.

—. “Slavery and the Limits of NonIntervention.” Frederick Douglass Papers: Series One: Speeches, Debates, and Interviews. Ed. John Blassingame and John McKivigan. Vol. 3. New Haven: Yale UP, 1985. 276-88.

— . “Slavery As It Now Exists in the United States.” Blassingame 341-52.

—. “Slavery, the Free Church, and British Agitation against Bondage.” Blassingame 316-39.

— . “Strong to Suffer and Yet Strong to Strive.” Frederick Douglass Papers: Series One: Speeches, Debates, and Interviews. Ed. John Blassingame and John McKivigan. Vol. 5. New Haven: Yale UP, 1992. 212-38.

—. “What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?” Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter et al. 3rd ed. Vol. 1. New York: Houghton, 1998. 1818- 37.

Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. 1903. New York: Dover, 1994.

Elliott, Robert. “The Civil Rights Bill.” Foner and Branham 520-35.

Epps, Archie, ed. Malcolm X: Speeches at Harvard. New York: Paragon, 1991.

Evanzz, Karl. The Messenger: The Rise and Fall of Elijah Muhammad. New York: Pantheon, 1999.

Foner, Philip, and Robert Branham, eds. Lift Every Voice: African American Oratory, 1787-1900. Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama P, 1998.

Forman, James. The Making of Black Revolutionaries. Washington, DC: Open Hand, 1985.

Frankenberg, Ruth. “Local Whitenesses, Localizing Whiteness.” Displacing Whiteness: Essays in Social and Cultural Criticism. Ed. Ruth Frankenberg. Durham: Duke UP, 1997. 1-34.

Garnet, Henry Highland. “Let the Monster Perish.” Foner and Branham 432-43.

Garrow, David. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. New York: Morrow, 1986.

Gilyard, Keith. “Literacy, Identity, Imagination, Flight.” College Composition and Communication 52.2 (2000): 260-72.

Glaude, Eddie. Exodus!: Religion, Race, and Nation in Early-Nineteenth-Century Black America. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2000.

Goldman, Peter. The Death and Life of Malcolm X. New York: Harper, 1973.

Graff, Harvey. “The Nineteenth-Century Origins of Our Times.” Literacy: A Critical Sourcebook. Ed. Ellen Cushman, Eugene Kintgen, Barry Kroll, Mike Rose. New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001. 211-33.

Grimke, Francis. “Centennial of the Birth of William Lloyd Garrison.” Woodson 81-101.

—. “The Negro and His Citizenship.” Woodson 391-406.

—. “The Race Problem as It Respects the Colored People and the Christian Church, in the Light of the Developments of the Last Year.” Woodson 600-27.

—. “The Remedy for the Present Strained Relations between the Races in the South.” Woodson 317-33.

Hall, Prince. “A Charge Delivered to the Brethren of the African Lodge.” Foner and Branham 38-44.

Hariman, Robert. “Time and Reconstitution of Gradualism in King’s Address: A Response to Cox.” Texts in Context: Critical Dialogues on Significant Episodes in American Political Rhetoric. Ed. Michael Leff and Fred Kauffeld. Davis, CA: Hermagoras P, 1989. 205-17.

Harper, France Ellen Watkins. “We Are All Bound Up Together.” Foner and Branham 456-60.

Horner, Bruce. “‘Students’ Right, English Only, and Re-Imagining the Politics of Language.” College English 63.6 (2001): 741-58.

Howard-Pitney, David. The Afro-American Jeremiad. Philadelphia: Temple, 1990.

Karim, Benjamin (with Peter Skutches and David Gallen). Remembering Malcolm. New York: Ballantine, 1996.

King, Martin Luther, Jr. “Facing the Challenge of a New Age.” Carson et al. 73-89.

—. “Give Us the Ballot!” Carson et al. 208-15.

—. “I Have a Dream.” Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter et al. 3rd ed. Vol. 2. New York: Houghton, 1998. 2530-33.

— . “A Realistic Look at the Question of Progress in the Area of Race Relations.” Carson et al. 167-79.

—. Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community? New York: Harper, 1967.

Klumpp, James. “Burkean Social Hierarchy and the Ironic Investment of Martin Luther King.” Kenneth Burke and the 21st Century. Ed. Bernard Brock. Albany: State U of New York P, 1999. 207-41.

Langston, John Mercer. “There Is No Full Enjoyment of Freedom.” Foner and Branham 273-79.

Lewis, John (with Michael D’Orso). Walking with the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998.

Lischer, Richard. The Preacher King. New York: Oxford UP, 1995.

Lucaites, John, and Celeste Condit. “Reconstructing ‘Equality’: Culturetypal and Counter-Cultural Rhetorics in the Martyred Black Vision.” Communication Monographs 57 (1990): 5-24.

Marrant, John. “You Stand on the Level with the Greatest Kings on Earth.” Foner and Branham 27-37.

Meier, August. “The Conservative Militant.” Martin Luther King, Jr.: A Profile. 1965. Ed. C. Eric Lincoln. New York: Hill and Wang, 1984. 144-56.

Miller, Keith D. “Beacon Light and Penumbra: African American Gospel Lyrics and Martin Luther King’s ‘I Have a Dream.'” The Role of Ideas in the Civil Rights South. Ed. Ted Ownby. Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 2002. 55-67.

—. Voice of Deliverance: The Language of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Its Sources. 2nd ed. Athens: U of Georgia P, 1998.

Miller, Keith D., and Ruth Ellen Kocher. “Shattering Kidnapper’s Heavenly Union: Interargumentation in Douglass’s Oratory and Narrative.” Approaches to Teaching Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. Ed. James Hall. New York: MLA, 1999. 81- 87.

Miller, Keith D., and Emily Lewis. “Touchstones, Authorities, and Marian Anderson: The Making of ‘I Have a Dream.'” The Making of Martin Luther King and the Civil Rights Movement. Ed. Brian Ward and Tony Badger. Hound-mills, UK: Macmillan, 1996. 147-61.

Nadle, Marlene. “Interview with Malcolm X: February 1965.” Reporting Civil Rights: Volume Two. 1965. New York: Library of America, 2003. 299-308.

Nakayama, Thomas, and Robert Krizek. “Whiteness: A Strategic Rhetoric.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 81 (1995): 291-309.

Osborne, Peter. “It Is Up to Us to Be Up and Doing.” Foner and Branham123-24.

Perry, Bruce. Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed America. Barrytown, NY: Station Hill, 1991.

Roediger, David. The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class. London: Verso, 1991.

Rosteck, Thomas, and Michael Leff. “Piety, Propriety, and Perspective: An Interpretation of Key Terms in Kenneth Burke’s Permanence and Change.” Western Journal of Speech Communication 33 (1989): 327- 41.

Sandage, Scott. “A Marble House Divided: The Lincoln Memorial, 1963.” Journal of American History 80 (1993): 135-67.

Solomon, Martha. “Covenanted Rights: The Metaphoric Matrix of ‘I Have a Dream.'” Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Sermonic Power of Public Discourse. Ed. Carolyn Calloway-Thomas and John Lucaites. Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama P, 1993. 66-84.

Stewart, Maria. “Why Sit Ye Here and Die?” Foner and Branham 125-30.

Street, Brian. “The New Literacy Studies.” Literacy: A Critical Sourcebook. Ed. Ellen Cushman, Eugene Kintgen, Barry Kroll, Mike Rose. New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001. 430-42.

Terrill, Robert. “Colonizing the Borderlands: Shifting Circumference in the Rhetoric of Malcolm X.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 16 (2000): 67-85.

Truth, Sojourner. “Ain’t I a Woman?” Foner and Branham 226-29.

—. “Snakes and Geese.” Foner and Branham 269-71.

Vander Lei, Elizabeth, and Keith D. Miller. “Martin Luther King, Jr.’s ‘I Have a Dream’ in Context: Ceremonial Protest and African American Jeremiad.” College English 62.1 (1999): 83-99.

Watkins, Frances Ellen. “Liberty for Slaves.” Foner and Branham 305-07.

Wells, Ida B. “Lynch Law in All Its Phases.” Ida B. Wells-Barnett. Ed. Mildred Thompson. New York: Carlson, 1990. 171- 87.

West, Cornel. “Malcolm X and Black Rage.” Malcolm X: In Our Own Image. Ed. Joe Wood. New York: St. Martin’s, 1992. 48-58.

Wiggins, William. O Freedom! Afro-American Emancipation Celebrations. Knoxville: U of Tennessee P, 1987.

Williams, Peter. “Abolition of the Slave Trade.” Foner and Branham 66-72.

—. “Slavery and Colonization.” Foner and Branham 114-20.

Wood, Joe, ed. Malcolm X: In Our Own Image. Ed. Joe Wood. New York: St. Martin’s, 1992.

Woodson, Carter, ed. The Works of Francis J. Grimke: Vol. 1: Addresses Mainly Personal and Racial. Washington, DC: Associated Publishers, 1942.

X, Malcolm. “At a Meeting in Paris.” Malcolm X: By Any Means Necessary. Ed. George Breitman. New York: Pathfinder, 1970. 113-26.

— . “The Ballot or the Bullet.” Malcolm X Speaks. Ed. George Breitman. New York: Grove, 1965. 23-44.

—. “The Harvard Law School Forum of December 16, 1964.” Malcolm X: Speeches at Harvard. Ed. Archie Epps. New York: Paragon, 1991. 115-30.

—. “The Leverett House Forum.” Malcolm X: Speeches at Harvard. Ed. Archie Epps. New York: Paragon, 1991. 131-60.

—. “Message to the Grassroots.” Malcolm X Speaks. Ed. George Breitman. New York: Grove, 1965. 4-17.

— . “The Second Rally of the OAAU.” Malcolm X: By Any Means Necessary. Ed. George Breitman. New York: Pathfinder, 1970. 75-107.

— . “Speech on ‘The Black Revolution.'” Two Speeches by Malcolm X. 1965. New York: Pathfinder, 1988. 7-21.

— . “Twenty Million Black People in a Political, Economic, and Mental Prison.” Malcolm X: The Last Speeches. Ed. Bruce Perry. New York: Pathfinder, 1989. 25-58.

X, Malcolm, and Alex Haley. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. 1965. New York: Ballantine, 1990.

Zarefsky, David. Lincoln, Douglas, and Slavery: In the Crucible of Public Debate. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1990.